Yet, part of the work of a Roman historian is to try to understand how the Romans understood their world, to be aware of anachronism in our accounts thereof, and to keep in mind that the sources never truly speak for themselves. At the centre of the whole complex was the immolatio, during which the animal was sprinkled with mola salsa (a mixture of spelt and salt), the flat of a knife was run along its back, and then it was slaughtered. Rhadamanthus and Minos were brothers. 37ab). The two texts are nearly identical and perhaps go back to the original lex sacra of the altar of Diana on the Aventine hill in Rome, to which the inscriptions explicitly appeal. fabam and Fest. 79 Macr., Sat. The vast majority of the bones come from pigs, sheep, and goats. This statement and much of what follows is based on a series of searches in the Brepolis on-line database of Latin literature, Libraries A and B (http://apps.brepolis.net/BrepolisPortal/default.aspx) conducted throughout the summer of 2015. WebFor example, the Peloponnesian War was primarily a struggle between two Greek city-states, Athens and Sparta, and was fought mainly on land and sea within the Greek world. 82. 283F284C; Liv., Per. See, for example, Morris et al. Roman sources make clear that Romans had several different rituals (sacrificium, polluctum, and magmentum) that appear, based on prominent structural similarities, to have been related to one another. The difference between Greek Gods and Roman Gods is that Greek gods have unique names of their own, whereas, Roman gods are 27 Aldrete Reference Aldrete2014: 32. Another famous instance of this scene is on the Boscoreale cup (Aldrete Reference Aldrete2014: 33, fig. 30 This is suggested by Ov., F. 1.1278. In 61 WebIn Greek mythology the king of gods is known as Zeus, whereas Romans call the king of gods Jupiter. 9 42 For example, Ares is the Greek Greeks call the queen Hera, whereas Romans queen of gods is Juno. WebOn the whole, political development in Greece followed a pattern: first the rule of kings, found as early as the period of Mycenaean civilization; then a feudal period, the Aldrete counts at least fifty-six sculptural reliefs dating from the seventh century b.c.e. Polluctum is a rite of wider scope than sacrificium, however, in that it could be performed on money and goods that do not appear to have been linked to eating in any way. This study argues, however, that the apparent continuity is illusory in some important ways and that we have lost sight of some fine distinctions that the Romans made among the rituals they performed. 3 It appears that no Roman source ever uses the language of sacrificium to describe devotio,Footnote Hemina fr. Of the fifty-six reliefs, forty-one show officials carrying axes. pecunia sacrificium makes clear that, despite its name, this ritual did not involve money. Lodwick, Lisa MacKinnon Reference MacKinnon2004: 5974. molo; de Vaan Reference De Vaan2008: 3867 s.v. In overlooking the differences between the Roman idea of sacrificium and the modern idea of sacrifice, we lose some of the details of how the Romans perceived a core element of their own experience of the divine. 24 Every household has one or more shrines devoted to this purpose. 40 Upon examination of the Roman evidence, however, it becomes evident that this distinction is an etic one: while we see at least two different rituals, the Romans are clear that they sacrifice a wide range of food substances beyond animal flesh. 36 It is important to note that there is no indication that these vegetal offerings were thought to be substitutions for what would have been, in better circumstances, animal victims.Footnote The expression rem dvnam facer, to make a thing sacred, shows that sacrifice was an act of transfer of ownership. To give just a single example, we know that there was originally some technical distinction among the different types of divine signs sent to the Romans by the gods. wheat,Footnote for young animals (including foetal and neonatal specimens),Footnote The ancient Greek and Roman gods did not become incarnate the way Jesus was, did not enter the stream of real human history the way Jesus did, did not die as a Arguably, then, it is the Christians who bequeathed to future generations the metonymic equivalence of sacrifice and violence, Knust and Vrhelyi Reference Knust and Vrhelyi2011: 17. sacrifice, Roman in OCD 10 They were rewarded for their endeavors with the position of judge in the Underworld. The insider-outsider problem has had little impact on the study of religion in pre-Christian Rome. 49 Since Greeks were the first ones, Romans followed them. } The ancients derived the term from magis auctus and understood it to mean to increase and by extension to honour with.Footnote Nor, in broader terms, do I think that internal, or emic, categories should automatically be privileged over external, or etic, ones.Footnote Our author makes clear that the sacrifice of two Gauls and two Greeks happened alongside another ritual: the punishment of an unchaste Vestal Virgin. Livy also uses the language of sacrifice when he describes the underground room as a place that had already seen human victims.Footnote 76. The expanded range of sacrificium suggests that meat and vegetal produce were both welcomed by the gods, and that we should not assume that meat offerings were necessarily privileged over other gifts in every circumstance. The children were drowned by the haruspices, usually in the sea. It is entirely possible that miniature ceramics were not, in reality, less expensive offerings than actual foodstuffs. Modern etymologists disagree on the origin of the term. In this section, I make the case that the related and equally widespread notion that all Roman rituals that required the death of an animal were sacrifices obfuscates the variety of rituals that Romans had available to them, effacing some of the fine distinctions Romans made about the ways they approached their gods. If the devotio was not successful (i.e., the devotus somehow survived), expiatory steps had to be taken: the burial of a larger-than-life-sized statue and piaculum hostia caedi. Despite the fact that the S. Omobono assemblage dates to several centuries before the Classical period, the range of faunal remains from the site are primarily what one would expect from a sanctuary based on what we know from literary texts. Cf. Greek Gods vs Roman Gods. Concise surveys of the major modern theories of sacrifice in the ancient world can be found in Knust and Vrhelyi Reference Knust and Vrhelyi2011: 418, Lincoln Reference Lincoln2012, and Graf Reference Graf2012. The limited sources we have are imprecise in their use of the terms even Cicero, who was an augur and was surely aware of the distinction.Footnote Knives would have been used only in conjunction with one or other of these implements. Dogs had other ritual uses as well. 18 th century excavations unearthed a number of sculptures with traces of color, but noted art historians dismissed the findings as anomalies. The other rite observed by the Romans that required a human death was called devotio, and it seems to have been restricted to a single family father, son, and grandson (it is possible our sources have multiplied a single occasion), all of whom, as commanders-in-the-field, vowed to commit themselves and the enemy troops to the gods of the underworld in order to ensure a Roman victory. 190L s.v. 32 It appears that if a worshipper could not afford to sacrifice something that was itself tasty, he might fulfill his obligation by giving something that evoked the idea of it.Footnote 97 45 The skeletal remains of dogs sometimes found interred with human remains or inside city walls are often interpreted as sacrifice by archaeologists.Footnote and the second century c.e. van Straten has offered a stronger explanation: the absence of slaughter scenes in Greek art is due to a lack of interest in this particular aspect of sacrifice on the part of those Greeks whose religious beliefs are reflected in this material, shall we say, the common people of the Classical period.Footnote For the Greeks While there has been tentative speculation that the reason behind a preference for procession scenes in Greek representations of sacrifice in the Archaic and Classical periods is due to a growing squeamishness inside Greek culture,Footnote The only Roman reference to the sacrifice of a deer pertains to a Greek context: Ov., F. 1.3878 where the deer is sacrificed to Diana as a substitute for Iphigenia. 11213L, s.v. 91 56 Feature Flags: { See Rosenblitt Reference Rosenblitt2011 for the connection between these two passages. WebStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which temples were Greek and which were Roman?, When was the Temple of Zeus at Olympia built?, What the features of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia? 43 Van Straten Reference Van Straten1995: 188. Now, the Romans did not eat people, so how does their performance of human sacrifice reinforce the link between sacrifice and dining? Other forms of ritual killing do not receive the same sort of negative judgement by Roman authors, and one form, devotio, even has strongly positive associations. 69 Render date: 2023-03-04T10:22:59.089Z Another way that mactare is different is that gods can mactare mortals at least in comedy, where characters sometimes wish that the gods would honour their enemies with trouble.Footnote I use ritual killing as a blanket term for any rite, including but not limited to sacrifice, that involves the death of a human being. 95 WebDifferences between Greek and Roman sacrifices. 83 69 57 Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Instead they seem to have conceived of it as the ritual consecration of an animal which was afterwards killed and eaten. favisae. The ritual ended with a litatio, that is, the inspection of the animal's entrails, and it was then followed by a meal. The literary evidence for this is slender but persuasive. (ed.) This has repercussions for our understanding of some elements of Roman religious thought. 1034 seems to draw an equivalence between sacrificare and mactare (cf. The Romans performed at least four forms of ritual killing, only one of which was sacrifice. 55.1.20 and 58.13) where the presence of an accusative object of immolare necessitates that cultro be instrumental in the traditional sense: ture et vino in igne in foculo fecit immolavitque vino mola cultroque Iovi o(ptimo) m(aximo) b(ovem) m(arem), Iunoni reginae b(ovem) f(eminam), Minervae b(ovem) f(eminam), Saluti publicae populi Romani Quiritium b(ovem) f(eminam).. Macr., Sat. Sacrifices of wine and incense are common in the Commentarii Fratrum Arvalium, e.g. 1 noun. Through the outsider point of view, we can interpret it in light of comparable behaviours in other cultures. There is also a queen of gods in Greek and Roman mythologies. wine,Footnote Although there is substantial evidence for other types of sacrificial offerings in the literary sources (see below, Section III), Roman authors do not discuss them at length, preferring instead to talk about grand public sacrifices of multiple animal victims. The most famous instance occurred annually at the festival of the Robigalia in June when a red dog and a sheep were sacrificed by the Flamen Quirinalis to ward off rust from the crops.Footnote 58 50, From all this, it is reasonable to conclude that the poor could substitute small vessels for more expensive, edible sacrificial offerings. Greek governments varied from kings and oligarchs to the totalitarian, racist, warrior culture of Sparta and the direct democracy of Athens, whereas Roman kings gave There is no question that the live interment of the Gauls and Greeks was a sacrifice: Livy identifies it as one of the sacrifices not part of the usual practice ordered by the Sibylline Books (sacrificia extraordinaria). 59 One does, however, sacrifice with a cow, with a pig, or with a little cruet. I concede that, to a certain extent, the insider-outsider lens does not show us difficulties that were previously invisible. Var., L. 5.112; see also Cic., Har. Upon examination of the Roman evidence, however, it becomes evident that this distinction is an etic one: while we see at least two different rituals, the Romans are 71 Chr. B. Rives provided valuable consultation on specific points and V. C. Moses generously shared her work-in-progress on the osteoarchaeological evidence from S. Omobono. 47 Live interment was only performed by the Romans as ritual killing, but live interment was not the only form of ritual killing (whether human sacrifice or not) that the Romans had available to them. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-rf4gk Modern scholars sometimes group all of these rites under the rubric sacrifice.Footnote Possible Answers: Roman temples were built on the ruins of previous structures. and at the battle of the Veseris between Rome and the Latins (8.9.114), the ritual consists of the recitation of the dedicatory formula by the consul P. Decius Mus while in the midst of battle. The offering of a dog to Robigus may be the same ritual as the augurium canarium referred to by Plin., N.H. 18.14. 344L, s.v. The survival beyond the early Empire of most aspects of the distinction among ritual forms discussed in Section IV cannot be asserted with any confidence. 77 refriva faba. The most famous account is Livy's description of the Romans reaction to their losses at Cannae and Canusium to Hannibal in 216 b.c.e.,Footnote This is made clear in numerous passages from several Roman authors. 13 This line of interpretation has enjoyed a wider influence in the study of Classical Antiquity than work along the lines of Burkert Reference Burkert and Bing1983 and Girard Reference Girard and Gregory1977, and the bibliography is enormous. The burial of Gauls and Greeks was a sacrifice, but one that Romans ought not to have performed. Test. Dear Mr. Chang, Aside from the obvious differences in language (one culture speaks as much Latin as the Vatican, while the other is all Greek to me), the Romans art largely imitated that of the Greeks. 35 Aeacus holds the keys to Hades. Cornell, T. J. 41 Among these criteria are a clear preference for specific parts of an animal or for animals of a specific age/sex/species, unusual butchery patterns, burning or other alterations to the remains, and the association of the remains with other material (e.g., votive offerings) linked to ritual activity. 14 In fact, devotio is viewed positively by the Romans as a selfless, almost superhuman act of true leadership.Footnote The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Scheid Reference Scheid1998: nn. were linked.Footnote WebGreeks Romans Lived in small rural communities Polis functioned as the city-states religious center Greek Gods Sense of identity Polis isolated from one another and independent Sanctuaries to share music, religion, poetry, and athletics Classical Greek Orders basic design elements for architecture (sense of order, predictability, and Lucil. Goats and dogs are less common, and we can expand the range of species to include horses and birds if we admit animals that are identified only as the object of immolatio, if not of sacrificium itself.Footnote 39 As the most extensive survey of meat production in Roman Italy has concluded, Dogs were variously trained as guards, protectors, companions, and pets, but they were not raised to be eaten (MacKinnon Reference MacKinnon2004: 74). Dog corpses were sometimes deposited with tablets that contained curses, and dog figurines are among the required items for performing some spells.Footnote But we can no longer recover indeed it appears that Romans of the early Empire could no longer recover what was the difference between a monstrum, a prodigium, a portentum, and an ostentum.Footnote Furthermore, there is reason to think that the crucial moment, or perhaps the first crucial moment, in the whole ritual process of sacrificium for the Romans was the sprinkling of mola salsa onto the victim, whereas several important modern theorizations of sacrifice place the greatest emphasis on, and see the essential meaning of sacrifice in, the moment of slaughter. 29 4.57) is not clear. 25 Neither of the acts that Pliny mentions is explicitly identified as sacrificium, or as any other rite in particular. Although they were not suitable as daily fare, there is evidence that several of the unexpected species from the S. Omobono deposit were edible on special occasions or in dire circumstances: they are surprisingly prevalent in magical and medicinal recipes. In addition to such great disasters, the people were terrified both by other prodigies and because in this year two Vestals, Opimia and Floronia, were discovered to have had illicit affairs. ex Fest. An exception is Scheid Reference Scheid2005: 52. WebWhat's the Greek word for sacrifice? Braga, Cristina The modern assumption that sacrifice requires an animal victim obfuscates the full range of sacrificium among the Romans. A parallel use of sacrificare is found in Apuleius Apologia 18, a passage which also shares Pliny's focus on poverty: paupertas, inquam, prisca aput saecula omnium civitatium conditrix, omnium artium repertrix, omnium peccatorum inops, omnis gloriae munifica, cunctis laudibus apud omnis nationes perfuncta. to the fourth century c.e. 85 Those poor Nacirema, who despise their physical form and try to improve it through ritual and ceremony, at first seem so different from us: primitive, superstitious, unsophisticated. thysa. 12 Most houses are of wattle and daub construction, but the shrine rooms of the more wealthy are walled with stone. Far less common in the S. Omobono collection, but still present in significant amounts, is a range of animals that do not seem to have formed a regular part of the Roman diet, such as deer, a beaver, lizards, a tortoise, and several puppies.Footnote sacrima. There is a difference, however. 53 67 89 Here's a list of translations. Hammers appear in only fifteen scenes, two-thirds of which date between the first century b.c.e. There is a small group of other rituals that share certain structural similarities with sacrificium, but which the Romans during the Republic and early Empire appear to have distinguished from it. It is unfortunate that the ancient sources on vegetal sacrifice are as exiguous as they are: it is not possible to determine what relationship its outward form bore to blood sacrifice. For example, think about the Roman and Greek mythologies about gods. 16 The objectivity of the outside observer can also facilitate cross-cultural comparison. Comparative mythology has served a variety of academic purposes. In Livy's account of the first devotio in 340 b.c.e. On the early Christian appropriation and transformation of Roman sacrificial imagery and discourse, see Castelli Reference Castelli2004: 509. 37 If the commander who devoted himself did not die in battle, he was interdicted from performing any ritual on behalf of the state (publicum divinum). WebWhat are the main differences between Greek and Roman gods? 64 There are many other non-meat sacrifices the Romans could offer. Here I use it as a tool to get at one aspect of Roman religious thought; I do not offer a sustained methodological critique of contemporary approaches of Roman antiquity. Modern theorizations of sacrifice focus on animal victims, treating the sacrifice of vegetal substances, if they are considered at all, as an afterthought or simply setting vegetal offerings as a second, lesser ritual, a substitution or a pale imitation.Footnote 8.10.)). and Paul. Furthermore, although all of these rites were performed on foodstuffs at altars or at least in sanctuaries, there are some critical differences among them and the ways they are discussed by the Romans. Flashcards. 34 Similar difficulties beset efforts, both ancient and modern, to reconstruct the technical differences among the concepts of sacer, sanctus, and religiosus: see Rives Reference Rives and Tellegen-Couperus2011. Nor was it secular, capital punishment; the punishment of criminals usually took a more direct and swift form: strangulation, beating, crucifixion, or precipitation (i.e., throwing someone off a cliff).Footnote Those details, once recovered, can in turn subtly reshape our own idea of what sacrifice is and what it does. Moses, Reference Moses, Brocato and Terrenatoforthcoming, table 8. Let me be clear. 20 The Romans were aware of the link, as is made clear by Paul. Huet explains the rarity of killing scenes in sacrificial reliefs from Italy by pointing out that the emphasis in these reliefs is really on the piety of the sacrificant who stands before the altar.Footnote WebRoman sacrificial practices were not functionally different from Greek, although the Roman rite was distinguishable from the Greek and Etruscan. WebIt housed an altar for animal sacrifice and was said to constantly burn incense. and Paul. 66 From an examination that is restricted to Roman sources and that sets aside Christian texts where the terms for these various rituals begin to be used in rather different ways, it appears that the hierarchy of rituals I have just described has been imposed from the outside. As has long been recognized, sacrificare and sacrificium are compounds of the phrase sacrum facere (to render sacred), and what is sacrum is anything that belongs to the gods.Footnote 77 In this way, the native, or emic, Roman view of sacrifice is more expansive than ours. 92 Livy, however, treats each burial in a distinct way. Further support for the idea that the act of sprinkling mola salsa was either the single, critical moment or an especially important moment in a process that transferred the animal to the divine realm, is that mola salsa seems to be the only major element of sacrifice that is not documented explicitly by a Roman source as appearing in any other ritual or in any other area of daily life: processions, libations, prayers, slaughter, and dining all occurred in non-sacrificial contexts.Footnote 15 73 One was killed at the Colline Gate, under the earth as is the custom and the other took her own life Since this horrible event which occurred in the midst of so many terrible things, as is wont to happen, was turned into a prodigy, the Board of Ten Men was ordered to consult the Books. While there appears to have been an original distinction among the rites of sacrificium, polluctum, and magmentum, we cannot recover the details of it in any serious way. mactus; Walde and Hofmann Reference Walde and Hofmann1954: 2.4 s.v. 19 If we allow only items explicitly identified as sacrificia in Roman sources, our list includes beans,Footnote 29 Jupiter also concentrated on protecting the Roman state. This should prompt researchers, myself included, to greater caution when presenting a native in our case, Roman point of view and to greater clarity about whether the concept under discussion at any given moment is really the Romans or ours, or is shared by both groups. The Greek gods domain over law had been mostly limited to the hereditary kings of individual city-states, but Rome grew into a unified Republic. 7 Martins, Manuela It is a hallmark of poverty, whether in a religious context or not, appearing often in poetic passages where the narrator describes a low-budget lifestyle.Footnote Q. Fabius Pictor was sent to the oracle at Delphi to ascertain by what prayers and supplications the Romans might placate the gods, and what end would there be to such calamities. Terms in this set (7) Which one refriva faba; Plin., N.H. 18.119. 93L, s.v. WebAnswer (1 of 13): There are plenty of individual differences between certain deities as other posters have pointed out. Ov., F. 4.90142 with Fest. 93 We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Greek Translation. Were these items sprinkled with mola salsa?Footnote more because the Romans sacrificed things that are not animals, and less because sacrificium is not a term that encompasses every Roman ritual that involves the death of a living being. molo; Walde and Hofmann Reference Walde and Hofmann1954: 2.1046 s.v. Mar. Finally, both ancient societies have twelve main gods and goddesses. 70 24 It is understandable that, from the etic viewpoint, two rituals performed in roughly the same way should appear to be identical to each other, even if emic accounts distinguish between them. 76 the ritual began with a procession that was followed by a praefatio, a preliminary offering of prayers, wine and incense. Flashcards. aryxnewland. Paul. On the Latin terminology for living sacrificial victims, see Prescendi Reference Prescendi2009. WebWhile Greek and Roman sculpture and ruins are linked with the purity of white marble in the Western mind, most of the works were originally polychrome, painted in multiple, lifelike colors. ), the Romans followed instructions from the Sibylline Books to bury alive pairs of Gauls and Greeks, one man and one woman of each, in the Forum Boarium. hasContentIssue true, Copyright The Author(s) 2016. Scheid's reconstruction focuses on a living victim, and this is in keeping with the ancient sources own emphasis on blood sacrifice. mactus; Serv., A. In the sacred realm, Romans could also pollucere a tithe to the god Hercules.Footnote As illustration, let us return to Livy and the human sacrifice in 216 b.c.e. The distinction between sacrificare and mactare was lost by Late Antiquity, but it was still active in the Republic and early Empire.Footnote 176 and Serv., A. ex Fest. Carretero, Lara Gonzalez This is a clear difference from Athena, who was never associated with the weather. 49 McClymond treats sacrificial events as clusters of different types of activities, including prayer, killing, cooking, and consumption, which are not in and of themselves sacrificial (they are frequently performed in other contexts), but which become sacrificial in the aggregate (McClymond Reference McClymond2008: 2534). For the difference in Roman attitudes toward human sacrifice and other forms of ritual killing, see Schultz Reference Schultz2010. from the archaic temple at the site of S. Omobono in Rome.Footnote Tagliacozzo Reference Tagliacozzo1989: 66. It is entirely possible that the search for a single, critical moment where a change from profane to sacred occurs is, in fact, a modern preoccupation. 83 132.2; Scheid Reference Scheid2005: 1369). 58.47, 64.1.467, and 68.1.49. 61 78 e.g., Liv. 19 14.30; Sil. See, however, C. Ando's concluding essay in Faraone and Naiden Reference Faraone and Naiden2012 along with A. Hollman's review of that same volume in BMCR 2013.04.44 and, in the same vein but with reference to ancient Egypt, Frankfurter Reference Frankfurter2011. WebFor example, the Peloponnesian War was primarily a struggle between two Greek city-states, Athens and Sparta, and was fought mainly on land and sea within the Greek world. Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 22441 and, arriving at the same conclusion by a different path, Schultz Reference Schultz2012: 1323. 101. Plin., N.H. 31.89 is usually taken to refer to sacrifice (so Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 105) but the text mentions only sacra, not sacrificia. Burkert Reference Burkert and Bing1983: 3; Girard Reference Girard and Gregory1977: 1. Horses: Plin., N.H. 28.146; Fest. Sacrifice was just one of several rites (alongside polluctum and magmentum) that the Romans had available to them that look to us, standing outside their religious system, as if they were all identical or nearly so. These two passages from Pliny and Apuleius may provide an explanation for the hundreds of thousands of miniature fictile vessels (plates, cups, etc.) Correct answer: What is a major difference between Greek and Roman temples? In what follows, I aim to clear away a few of the accretions that have arisen from more than a century of modern theorizing about the nature and meaning of sacrifice as a universal human phenomenon in order to gain a better understanding of those actions that the Romans identify by the Latin words sacrificium and sacrificare.Footnote For an argument that wild animals are more common in ancient Mediterranean, and specifically in Etruscan, sacrifice than is generally acknowledged, see Rask Reference Rask2014. The tendency is intensified in Christian sources, which discuss pagan sacrifice exclusively in terms of blood sacrifice, distinguishing the shameful blood of animal victims from the sacred blood of Christ.Footnote Ioppolo Reference Ioppolo1972; Tagliacozzo Reference Tagliacozzo1989. 51 33 There is no evidence, contra Parker Reference Parker2004 and Wildfang Reference Wildfang2006: 589, that the Romans ever perceived the punishment of a Vestal as sacrifice. Marcellus, de Medicamentis 8.50; Palmer Reference Palmer and Hall1996: 234. uncovered in votive deposits throughout Italy. 22 for this article. 95 2021. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0075435816000319, Reference Feeney, Barchiesi, Rpke and Stephens, Reference Berry, Headland, Pike and Harris, Reference Rpke, Georgoudi, Piettre and Schmidt, Reference Lentacker, Ervynck, Van Neer, Martens and De Boe, Reference De Grossi Mazzorin and Tagliacozzo, Hammers, axes, bulls, and blood: some practical aspects of Roman animal sacrifice, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, Imposed etics, emics, and derived etics: their conceptual and operational status in cross-cultural psychology, Emics and Etics: The Insider/Outsider Debate, Religio Votiva: The Archaeology of Latial Votive Religion, Rome, Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity, Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth, Martyrdom and Memory: Early Christian Culture Making, L'Invention des grands hommes de la Rome antique, Dog remains in Italy from the Neolithic to the Roman period, The Cuisine of Sacrifice among the Greeks, Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the Other Italic Languages, Human sacrifice and fear of military disaster in Republican Rome, Das rmische Vorzeichenwesen (75327 v.
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